Julianna Warner
Celibacy,
Fidelity, and Purity
In many
cultures and societies, sexuality is imbued with religious significance. The issue of gender differentiation and
specialization has existed at least since the first hunter-gatherer and
agricultural societies in the Mediterranean around 7000 BCE, four thousand
years before the story of Adam, Eve, and the serpent was first told[1]. It is still controversial as to whether such
preliterate societies were aware of the correlation between sex and pregnancy,
but they did depict women as symbolic of soil and men as symbolic of plows as a
metaphor for fertility and fertilization[2]. Since then, sexuality has become a major
consideration in religious, non-religious, and spiritual life among people of
most if not all faiths and cultures.
Today, a culture’s religious background greatly influences how
individuals interpret moral codes covering issues of sexuality, which restrict
and regulate sexual activity and provide a role for sexuality in human
interactions. In particular, cultures
differ in their views on abstinence and celibacy, premarital and extramarital
sex, and sexual purity. These
differences shape society as a whole as well as individual relationships and
personal understandings of the body.
Countless
factors have gone into the ways in which people of specific religious and
non-religious cultural groups consider gender differences, sex and sexuality,
and the implications of civil unions and marriage. It is difficult, if not impossible to compare
and contrast these different views without dealing with the inseparable overlap
among the opinions in question. It is
important to take into consideration at least the following four religious and
spiritual perspectives when comparing and contrasting the historical evolution
of opinions on standards of sexual conduct.
These include, but are in no way limited to Judaism, Christianity,
Hinduism, and Buddhism. In order to
fully understand currently-held views of sex and sexuality among different
cultures, it is essential to consider their historical influences. In the past century, there have been many
radical changes in social attitudes with respect to sexuality, marriage,
divorce, homosexuality, abortion, contraception, and gender, to name only a few[3].
At the
root of every religion lies a certain predicament over human existence and the
correlating concept that those predicaments can be resolved[4]. For example, Christians believe that the core
of the human predicament lies in sin and divergence from God, while Buddhists
understand it to be in the desire for life’s pleasures[5]. The ultimate goal in Christianity is
salvation and an eternal relationship with God.
In Buddhism, it is to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana[6]. In both religions, as in Judaism and Hinduism,
one particularly distracting element of human life which causes deviations from
the ultimate goal of the specific religion is the temptation of sex. It can be concluded from the lasting
significance on such subjects that taboo has a preserving effect on cultures.
Celibacy/Abstinence
Religious
beliefs provide the grounds for different views on purity and pollution, desire
and abstinence, sin and salvation, etc.
Whether or not people of a particular religious or cultural background
place strong moral value on matters such as celibacy and abstinence depends
upon their attitudes toward procreation, earthly existence, transcendence, etc.[7] The four religions mentioned above are all
oriented toward other-worldly goals, so earthly existence is merely part of an
individual’s “journey”. However, some
are more explicit about positing a direct continuity between sexual and
spiritual energies. Even those which do
not place significance on this continuity, such as Christianity, view celibacy
as a “measure of powerful mastery over the senses”[8]. To Christians, celibacy was a way to eternal
salvation and ultimate freedom, rather than a more spiritually pure earthly
existence[9]. In fact, some of the most ardent Christians
during the third and fourth centuries advocated renouncing the world and
choosing poverty and celibacy[10]. They believed that sexual marriage was not as
good as chaste marriage, but that both are inferior to “pure chastity”[11]. Such views differed greatly from those of the
Hebrew faith. Jews believed in God’s
endorsement of marriage and procreation, as they understood it as their duty to
become “one flesh” with their spouses and to “multiply”[12].
That is
not to say that there are no restrictions on sexual relations in Judaism. To the contrary, there are many direct and
subtle references to standard sexual conduct in the Tanakh. Such laws of sexual purity in the Hebrew
Bible were extremely influential for Christians as they formed their separate
opinions on the matter, but the two religions are ultimately very different in
their sexual practices and beliefs. In
understanding the role of sex and sexuality in Judaism, one could first
investigate the creation stories in Genesis.
By Jews, these stories were interpreted to be celebratory in that they
reveal God’s desire for humans to love other humans and to pass on their
“blood” to new generations[13]. In general, Christians differed from such
views, in that they believed that all aspects of sex and sexuality except for in
the use of procreation were sinful[14]. They believed that Adam and Eve were virgins
and that they were meant to have remained so[15]. Another example of explicit sexual references
in the Tanakh is in God’s commandments in Leviticus. It is important to be aware of the political
and social influences of the times and regions which were manifested in the
writings produced and which may have little or different relevance to Abrahamic
religions today.
For
example, the fact that the Bible’s authors were imbedded in a predominantly
patriarchal society strongly influenced everything from the words they chose to
the stories they wrote[16]. Those cultural influences also had an impact
on the interpretations of those stories and words. For example, the Holiness Code in Leviticus
which the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron for the Israelite people on Mount Sinai
included three male characters: God, Moses, and Aaron[17]. The words spoken by God were intended to be
heard by males, as is evident in the language used (“Do not lie with a male as
one lies with a woman”)[18]. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls
unveiled stories that date from between 150 BCE and 70 CE with Jewish
characters who practiced celibacy in order to represent and honor the warriors
of Israel who were subject to periods of sacrificial sexual abstinence during
the Holy Wars[19]. Their celibate state was characteristic of
the tormented society as a whole.
The
practice of celibacy among Jews and Christians differs greatly from that of
Buddhism and Hinduism, although they all contain the concept that humanity is
flawed but redeemable[20]. Sexual desire is something many religions see
as one of the main ways in which humanity is flawed. Redemption can be found in losing such
desires. Essentially, Buddhists desire
to not desire. One of the most essential
aspects of Buddhist monastic vows is sexual chastity, which they believe
provides for a more holy and sacred life with an emphasis on abolishing desire
and thus dissatisfaction[21]. In the Hindu tradition, there are four stages
of life, two of which are periods of celibacy.
During the stages in which sex is permitted, however, it is seen as
fruitful and nurturing[22]. Hinduism and Buddhism alike support ascetic
practices by their members who may make the decision to remain celibate for the
entirety of their lives. Celibate Hindus
and Buddhists will make renunciations early on in their lives and will often
spend their energies furthering their faith-based studies[23].
Premarital/Extramarital Sex
Premarital sex is considered taboo and sinful in many
cultures. In cultures where extramarital
sexual relations breach a sexual norm it may
also be referred to as adultery, fornication, philandery, or infidelity. Those terms also carry moral and religious judgments
and consequences in civil or religious law.
In Hinduism today, socially undesirable sexual behavior by
men is often accepted as a natural male trait[24]. For example, if a man has more than one
sexual partner, he is considered “lucky” and “a real man”, because of his
ability to have access to and control over more than one woman[25]. For men, it is also acceptable to have sex
before marriage, as it is seen to give them practice and masculinity[26]. Even when such behaviors are not endorsed,
they are excused under a broad concept of masculinity. Such ideas differ greatly from those held by
Buddhists. Buddhists are neither
encouraged nor discouraged to get married, although marriage is generally
considered a secular affair[27]. When Buddhists do get married, however, they
often take vows to support one another in the path to awakening[28]. The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to eliminate
suffering by removing desire, but, although the Buddha warned against harmful
sexuality, he did not say anything against healthy sexual relationships[29].
While Buddhists strive to eliminate the desire
of sex, Jews and Christians legitimize the temptation by getting married. In Judaism, adultery and fidelity were two of
the main metaphors associated with Israel’s relationship with God. The Covenant Code in the book of Exodus is
often viewed as a metaphorical “marriage” between God and the Israelites. Worshiping a foreign God was seen as a form
of adultery[30]. The Pentateuch does not explicitly prohibit
polygamy, and many biblical figures, such as King David and Solomon, had
multiple wives[31]. What Jews see as God’s blessing upon marriage
and procreation has allowed for much ambivalence toward sexuality. Jesus is believed to have intended to
eradicate certain pagan sexual practices, such as incest and adultery, as well
as Jewish views on the practice of polygamy and divorce. Marriage, according to Christians, had become
indisputably monogamous. At the same
time, sex in a Christian marriage is meant solely for procreation[32].
Purity/Pollution
The
issue of purity and impurity can be found in virtually all religions. In religions which place significance on these
dualities, the two play a dynamic role in social value systems. In Hinduism, for example, an individual’s
body is in a constantly fragile state of purity or impurity, which in part
determines one’s caste and community standing[33]. Impurity, or pollution, is seen as both a
dangerous category as well as a meaningful structuring principle in India[34]. Pollution may either be caused by deliberate
violations of religious or social norms, such as murder, or by natural or
unintentional effects of human physiology, such as menstruation or death[35]. Also, intermarriage among different social
castes in India is socially condemned because different castes are believed to
contain different amounts of pollution[36]. Women are warned to not speak of or think
about sex, as doing so could bring shame and disgrace upon the family[37]. Buddhism has been relatively accepting of
nuns on the path to enlightenment, but women are otherwise seen as unclean
seductresses[38]. Seeing them in this way allows for justified
disgust of sexuality. Similarly,
menstruation is seen as a “convenient emblem of defilement”[39]. Life itself is not seen as pure, and all
distractions from enlightenment are considered pollution.
The Hebrew term for a woman during menstruation
and childbirth is “niddah”[40]. Certain aspects of the issue of purity are
thoroughly addressed in the Holiness Code in the book of Leviticus, one of the
most prominent ones being menstruation, which many different religions address
and contend with in different ways. In
many cultures and religions, the significance of menstruation is either
portrayed as a sacred time for celebration or a source of pollution and
impurity which must be shunned and separated from the rest of the community[41]. According to Jewish law, menstruating women must
“separate” for seven days[42]. Sexual intercourse during menstruation is
prohibited, as it says, “Do not come near a woman during her period of
uncleanliness to uncover her nakedness”[43]. Also, anything a menstruating woman sits or
lies upon must go through a cleansing process[44]. Some Jewish men see women in general as being
unclean and lustful threats to the pure and holy[45].
Despite
these observations, there are many instances in the Tanakh and the Old
Testament which imply legitimacy in finding pleasure, joy, and even freedom in
sexual relationships[46]. In fact, reformers of the Christian church,
such as Augustine, were the reasons why sex and sexuality were given the sinful
connotations they still have today[47]. While Jews and early Christians saw Genesis
as an “affirmation of human freedom to choose good or evil”, later Christians
believed that humankind was fallen and that human will was “incorrigibly
corrupt”[48]. Thus, the Jewish ideas of moral freedom
eventually morphed into the Christian idea of universal corruption.
In order to understand religious questions, it is
necessary to be absorbent of the different perspectives on history, evolution
of theology, and infinite interpretational possibilities. In studying sexuality among Judaism,
Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism, it is important to observe standards of
sexual conduct on issues of morality and ethics. It is also interesting and important to
consider how cultural relevance of certain rules and morals has changed over
the centuries and how these changes affect our interpretations of the text or
practice at hand. For thousands of
years, sexuality has been at the root of ultimate questions pertaining to human
behavior, and cultural understandings of meaning behind pleasure, desire, and
certain physiological functions of the body.
Cultures are shaped by social, political, and religious standards on
abstinence and celibacy, premarital and extramarital sex, and sexual
purity. For some, sex is meant to be
sacred and joyous, while in others, it is best to abstain from even thinking
about it. These views are, in turn,
shaped by a culture’s belief in the predicament of human existence, which vary
widely from culture to culture. Views of
sex within a given religion are often tied to personal integrity, salvation,
and purity and are often conflicting, controversial, and ever-changing.
Works
Cited
Biale,
David. Eros and the Jews: From Biblical
Israel to Contemporary America. University of
California Press, 1997.
Faure,
Bernard. The Red Thread: Buddhist
Approaches to Sexuality. Princeton University
Press, 1998.
Harris,
William V., James P. Marshall, and Jay D. Schvaneveld, “In the Eyes of God”, Journal of
Comparative
Family Studies
39, no. 2.
Khan,
M. E., John W. Townsend, and Shampa D’Costa. “Behind Closed Doors: A
Qualitative
Study of Sexual Behavior of Married Women in
Bangladesh”, Culture, Health and
Sexuality 4, no. 2. doi:
10.1080/13691050110102253
Kozak,
Arnold. The Everything Buddhism Book: A
Complete Introduction to the History,
Traditions,
and Beliefs of Buddhism, Past and Present. F&W Media Inc., 2011.
Numrich, Paul David. “The Problem with Sex
According to Buddhism”, Dialog: A Journal
of
Theology 48, no. 1. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6385.2009.00431.x.
Pagels,
Elaine. Adam, Eve, and the Serpent. New York: Random House, 1988.
Robert
Lamont Brown, Peter. The Body and
Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation
in Early
Christianity. Columbia
University Press, 1988.
Shoulson,
Abraham B. Marriage and Family Life: A Jewish View. New York: Twayne
Publishers, 1959.
Vail,
Lise F. “Unlike a Fool, He is not Defiled”, The
Journal of Religious Ethics 30, no. 3.
[1]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“sexuality”.
[2]
Encyclopedia of Religion s.v.
“sexuality”.
[3]
Elaine Pagels Adam, Eve, and the Serpent (New
York: Random House, 1988), xvii.
[4]
Paul David Numrich, “The Problem
with Sex According to Buddhism”, Dialog:
A Journal of Theology 48, no. 1. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6385.2009.00431.x
[5]
Numrich, “Problem with Sex”, 62.
[6]
Numrich, “Problem with Sex”, 62.
[7]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“celibacy”.
[8]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“celibacy”.
[9]Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“celibacy”.
[10]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, xxv.
[11]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, 29.
[12]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, xxv.
[13]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, xxv.
[14]
V. William Harris, James P. Marshall, and Jay D. Schvaneveld, “In the Eyes of
God”, Journal of Comparative Family
Studies 39, no. 2, 269.
[15]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent,
xxv.
[16]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, 10.
[17]
Tanakh (New York: The Jewish
Publication Society, 1985), 202.
[18]
Leviticus 18:22 (New Standard Revised Version).
[19]
Peter Robert Lamont Brown, The Body and
Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (Columbia
University Press, 1988), 38.
[20]
Numrich, “Problem with Sex”, 62.
[21]
Numrich, “Problem with Sex”, 62.
[22]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“celibacy”.
[23]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“celibacy”.
[24]
M. E. Khan, John W. Townsend, and Shampa D’Costa. “Behind Closed Doors: A
Qualitative Study of Sexual Behavior of Married Women in Bangladesh”, Culture, Health and Sexuality 4, no. 2.
[25]
Khan et al “Behind Closed Doors”, 238.
[26]
Khan et al “Behind Closed Doors”, 238.
[27]
Arnold Kozak. The Everything Buddhism
Book: A Complete Introduction to the History, Traditions, and Beliefs of
Buddhism, Past and Present (F&W Media Inc., 2011), 192.
[28]
Kozak, The Everything Buddhism Book,
192.
[29]
Kozak, The Everything Buddhism Book,
192.
[30]
David Biale, Eros and the Jews: From
Biblical Israel to Contemporary America (University of California Press,
1997), 24.
[31]
Abraham B. Shoulson Marriage and Family
Life: A Jewish View (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1959) 57.
[32]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, 29.
[33]
Lise F. Vail, “Unlike a Fool, He is not Defiled”, The Journal of Religious Ethics 30, no. 3.
[34]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“purification”.
[35]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“purification”.
[36]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“purification”.
[37]
Khan et al “Behind Closed Doors”, 238.
[38]
Kozak, The Everything Buddhism Book,
195.
[39]
Bernard Faure. The Red Thread: Buddhist
Approaches to Sexuality, (Princeton University Press, 1998), 57.
[40]
Encyclopedia of Christianity, s.v.
“sexual ethics”.
[41]
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v.
“purification”.
[42]
Leviticus 15:19 (New Standard Revised Version).
[43]
Leviticus 18:19 (New Standard Revised Version).
[44]
Leviticus 15:25 (New Standard Revised Version).
[45]
Brown, Body and Society, 39.
[46]
Genesis 18:12 (New Standard Revised Version).
[47]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, xxvi.
[48]
Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent,
97.